技術の力を、戦争の拡大につなげない Not Letting the Power of Technology Expand War

米国による日本への開港要求The United States' demand that Japan open its ports

軍事的威圧Military coercion

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：フィルモア大統領〔派遣決定〕、ペリー〔艦隊司令官〕United States: President Fillmore [decided to dispatch], Perry [fleet commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

日本：徳川家慶・家定〔将軍〕、阿部正弘〔老中〕Japan: Tokugawa Ieyoshi and Iesada [shoguns], Abe Masahiro [senior councillor]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

蒸気軍艦を含む艦隊で来航。1854年、日米和親条約。Arrived with a fleet that included steam warships. In 1854, the Convention of Kanagawa (Treaty of Peace and Amity).

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

領土征服ではないが、武力を背景に選択を迫られた交渉。幕府の外交と国内政治が揺らぐ。Not a territorial conquest, but a negotiation in which choices were forced under the backing of armed force. The shogunate's diplomacy and domestic politics were shaken.

クリミア戦争Crimean War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ロシア：ニコライ1世、アレクサンドル2世〔皇帝〕Russia: Nicholas I, Alexander II [emperors]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

オスマン帝国：アブデュルメジト1世〔皇帝〕。英仏なども参戦。Ottoman Empire: Abdulmejid I [sultan]. Britain, France and others also joined the war.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ロシア軍がオスマン帝国の支配下にある公国へ進駐。蒸気船・鉄道・電信が輸送と指揮に関与。Russian forces advanced into principalities under Ottoman rule. Steamships, railways and the telegraph were involved in transport and command.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

欧州の勢力争いが黒海地域の住民と兵士に大きな被害をもたらす。ロシアは敗戦。Rivalry among European powers inflicted great harm on residents and soldiers in the Black Sea region. Russia was defeated.

第二次アヘン戦争Second Opium War

英仏による清への侵攻〔第二次アヘン戦争〕Anglo-French invasion of Qing China [Second Opium War]

別の呼び名：アロー戦争Also known as: Arrow War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：パーマストン〔主要な首相〕、エルギン〔交渉担当〕。フランス：ナポレオン3世〔皇帝〕Britain: Palmerston [principal prime minister], Elgin [negotiator]. France: Napoleon III [emperor]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

清：咸豊帝〔皇帝〕、恭親王〔交渉担当〕Qing: Xianfeng Emperor [emperor], Prince Gong [negotiator]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

艦隊と遠征軍で攻撃。天津条約・北京条約。円明園の略奪・焼却。Attacked with fleets and expeditionary forces. Treaty of Tianjin and Convention of Peking. Looting and burning of the Yuanmingyuan.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

港の追加開放、外国勢力の権益拡大。香港の九龍半島南部を英国へ割譲。Additional ports opened and foreign powers' interests expanded. The southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula in Hong Kong ceded to Britain.

フランスによるベトナム侵攻・支配拡大French invasion of Vietnam and expansion of control

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

フランス：ナポレオン3世〔初期〕、ジュール・フェリー〔後期の首相〕France: Napoleon III [early period], Jules Ferry [prime minister in the later period]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ベトナム：嗣徳帝などの阮朝、各地の抵抗勢力Vietnam: the Nguyen dynasty under Emperor Tu Duc and others, and resistance forces in various places

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

艦隊による沿岸攻撃から領土占領へ。条約によって南部の植民地化、北部・中部の保護国化。From coastal attacks by fleets to occupation of territory. By treaties, the south was colonized and the north and center became protectorates.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

王朝が存続しても、外交・政治の決定権を奪われる。「保護国」は対等な保護関係ではなかった。Even though the dynasty survived, it was deprived of decision-making power over diplomacy and politics. The "protectorate" was not a protective relationship between equals.

ロシアの中央アジア征服Russian conquest of Central Asia

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ロシア：アレクサンドル2世、カウフマン〔軍人・総督〕Russia: Alexander II, Kaufman [military officer and governor-general]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

コーカンド、ブハラ、ヒヴァなど。ヒヴァのムハンマド・ラヒーム・ハン2世Kokand, Bukhara, Khiva and others. Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

陸軍で都市・国家を攻撃。併合や、外交権を制限する条約。Attacked cities and states with the army. Annexation, and treaties restricting diplomatic authority.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

現地国家の独立性が失われる。これは海を越えない帝国拡張の例。The independence of local states was lost. This is an example of imperial expansion that did not cross the sea.

チリによるマプチェの領域の軍事占領Chilean military occupation of Mapuche territory

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

チリ：コルネリオ・サアベドラ〔軍人・政策推進者〕Chile: Cornelio Saavedra [military officer and policy promoter]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

マプチェの諸共同体、クィラパン〔指導者〕Mapuche communities, Quilapan [leader]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍の進駐、要塞・入植地の拡大。Advance of the army, and expansion of forts and settlements.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

土地と自治を失う。従来の「アラウカニア平定」という名前は、征服された側の被害を見えにくくする。Land and self-government were lost. The traditional name "Pacification of Araucania" makes the harm done to the conquered hard to see.

フランスのメキシコ侵攻French invasion of Mexico

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

フランス：ナポレオン3世。マクシミリアン〔フランスが支援したメキシコ皇帝〕France: Napoleon III. Maximilian [emperor of Mexico supported by France]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

メキシコ：ベニート・フアレス〔大統領〕Mexico: Benito Juarez [president]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

遠征軍を送り、共和国に代わる帝政を樹立しようとする。Sent an expeditionary force and attempted to establish an empire in place of the republic.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

メキシコ側が抵抗。フランスは撤兵し、共和国が回復。侵攻が成功しなかった例。The Mexican side resisted. France withdrew its troops and the republic was restored. An example of an invasion that did not succeed.

日本による琉球王国の強制編入Japan's forced incorporation of the Ryukyu Kingdom

強制編入Forced incorporation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：明治政府、松田道之〔命令を伝達・実施した官僚〕Japan: Meiji government, Matsuda Michiyuki [official who conveyed and carried out the orders]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

琉球：尚泰〔国王〕、王府の官僚・住民Ryukyu: Sho Tai [king], officials of the royal government and residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1872年に「琉球藩」とし、1879年に軍・警察を派遣。首里城明け渡しと沖縄県設置を命令。In 1872 made it the "Ryukyu Domain," and in 1879 dispatched troops and police. Ordered the surrender of Shuri Castle and the establishment of Okinawa Prefecture.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

琉球王国の政治体制が失われる。一般にいう「琉球処分」は、日本政府側の行政用語に由来する。The political system of the Ryukyu Kingdom was lost. The commonly used term "Ryukyu Disposition" derives from the administrative language of the Japanese government side.

アチェ戦争Aceh War

オランダによるアチェ侵攻・長期征服戦争Dutch invasion of Aceh and long war of conquest

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

オランダ：ファン・ホイツ〔後期の軍事指導者〕Netherlands: Van Heutsz [military leader in the later period]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

アチェ王国・地域社会、チュ・ニャ・ディン〔抵抗指導者〕Aceh Sultanate and local society, Cut Nyak Dhien [resistance leader]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

海上輸送による遠征、拠点占領、ゲリラ戦への掃討作戦。Expeditions by sea transport, occupation of strongholds, and sweeping operations against guerrilla warfare.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

独立した政治体制を失い、住民の抵抗と植民地軍の暴力が長く続く。The independent political system was lost, and the residents' resistance and the violence of colonial forces continued for a long time.

日本軍による台湾南部の先住民族への攻撃Japanese military attack on indigenous peoples of southern Taiwan

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：西郷従道〔遠征軍指揮官〕、大久保利通〔清との交渉〕Japan: Saigo Tsugumichi [commander of the expeditionary force], Okubo Toshimichi [negotiations with the Qing]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

パイワン族などの地域社会。外交交渉の相手は清。Local communities such as the Paiwan. The counterpart in diplomatic negotiations was the Qing.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

琉球の漂流民殺害事件を理由に遠征。清との交渉後、撤兵。Expedition justified by the killing of Ryukyuan castaways. Troops withdrew after negotiations with the Qing.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

先住民族の集落が軍事攻撃を受ける。1895年からの台湾全体の植民地化とは別の出来事。Indigenous villages came under military attack. This is a separate event from the colonization of the whole of Taiwan from 1895.

日本による朝鮮への軍事的威圧と条約締結Japan's military coercion of Korea and the conclusion of a treaty

軍事的威圧Military coercion

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：黒田清隆〔全権〕、井上馨〔副全権〕Japan: Kuroda Kiyotaka [plenipotentiary], Inoue Kaoru [deputy plenipotentiary]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

朝鮮：高宗〔国王〕、申櫶〔交渉担当〕Korea: Gojong [king], Sin Heon [negotiator]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

江華島事件後、日朝修好条規。開港、日本側の領事裁判権など。After the Ganghwa Island incident, the Japan–Korea Treaty of Amity. Opening of ports, Japanese consular jurisdiction, and more.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

日本は欧米から受けた不平等条約と似た仕組みを、朝鮮との関係に導入した。Japan introduced into its relations with Korea an arrangement similar to the unequal treaties it had received from Western powers.

ブラックヒルズ戦争Black Hills War

米国によるラコタなどへの戦争The United States' war against the Lakota and others

別の呼び名：大スー戦争〔1876〜1877年〕Also known as: Great Sioux War [1876–1877]

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：グラント〔大統領〕、陸軍United States: Grant [president], the army

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ラコタなど：シッティング・ブル、クレイジー・ホースLakota and others: Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

居留地への移動を命じ、従わない集団を軍事攻撃。Ordered groups to move to reservations and attacked militarily those that did not comply.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

土地・移動・生活の自由を奪われる。「西部開拓」を先住民族側から見れば、土地の収奪と軍事的排除でもある。Land, movement and freedom of life were taken away. Seen from the indigenous peoples' side, "westward expansion" was also the seizure of land and military exclusion.

アルゼンチンによる先住民族の領域の征服Argentine conquest of indigenous territory

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

アルゼンチン：フリオ・ロカ〔陸軍大臣、のち大統領〕Argentina: Julio Roca [minister of war, later president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

マプチェ、テウェルチェなどMapuche, Tehuelche and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍事遠征によって領域を国家の支配下へ組み込む。Incorporated territory under state control through military expeditions.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

殺害、拘束、移送、土地の収奪。「砂漠の征服」と呼ばれた土地には、人々が暮らしていた。Killing, detention, removal and seizure of land. People lived on the land called the "Conquest of the Desert."

第二次アフガン戦争Second Afghan War

英国によるアフガニスタン侵攻〔第二次アフガン戦争〕British invasion of Afghanistan [Second Afghan War]

別の呼び名：第二次英・アフガン戦争／第二次アフガニスタン戦争Also known as: Second Anglo-Afghan War / Second Afghanistan War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：ディズレーリ〔首相〕、リットン〔インド総督〕Britain: Disraeli [prime minister], Lytton [viceroy of India]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

アフガニスタン：シェール・アリー、ヤアクーブ・ハーン、アブドゥル・ラフマーン〔歴代アミール〕Afghanistan: Sher Ali, Yaqub Khan, Abdur Rahman [successive emirs]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

英国使節の受け入れ拒否などを理由に侵攻。1879年ガンダマク条約で外交への英国の統制などを要求。Invaded on grounds including the refusal to receive a British mission. In the 1879 Treaty of Gandamak, demanded British control over diplomacy, among other things.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

戦闘と占領への抵抗が続く。国内統治は残っても、対外政策の自由が制限された。Fighting and resistance to occupation continued. Even though domestic governance remained, freedom in foreign policy was restricted.

ズールー戦争Zulu War

英国によるズールー王国侵攻British invasion of the Zulu Kingdom

別の呼び名：英・ズールー戦争Also known as: Anglo-Zulu War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：フレア〔高等弁務官〕、チェルムスフォード〔軍司令官〕Britain: Frere [high commissioner], Chelmsford [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ズールー：セテワヨ〔国王〕Zulu: Cetshwayo [king]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

現地の英国当局が最後通牒を出し、侵攻。小銃・砲兵を投入。The local British authorities issued an ultimatum and invaded. Deployed rifles and artillery.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

ズールー側は初戦で大勝するが、最終的には敗北。王国が解体される。The Zulu won a great victory in the first battle but were ultimately defeated. The kingdom was dismantled.

フランスによるチュニジア侵攻French invasion of Tunisia

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

フランス：ジュール・フェリー〔首相〕France: Jules Ferry [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

チュニジア：サドク・ベイ〔君主〕Tunisia: Sadok Bey [monarch]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍事侵攻後、バルドー条約で保護国化。After the military invasion, made a protectorate by the Treaty of Bardo.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

君主が残っても、国家の決定権がフランスに移る。Even though the monarch remained, the state's decision-making power passed to France.

英・エジプト戦争〔1882年〕Anglo-Egyptian War [1882]

英国によるエジプト侵攻・占領British invasion and occupation of Egypt

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：グラッドストン〔首相〕、ウォルズリー〔軍司令官〕Britain: Gladstone [prime minister], Wolseley [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

エジプト：アフマド・ウラービー〔軍人・政治指導者〕Egypt: Ahmed Urabi [military officer and political leader]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

艦隊による砲撃、上陸、陸戦。スエズ運河も重要な争点。Bombardment by fleet, landing, and land warfare. The Suez Canal was also an important point of contention.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

英国の軍事占領が長期化。「正式な併合」以外の方法でも実質的な支配が成立した。British military occupation became prolonged. Effective control was established by means other than "formal annexation."

ドイツの植民地獲得German acquisition of colonies

植民地支配Colonial rule

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ドイツ：ビスマルク〔宰相〕、ナハティガル〔現地での条約交渉など〕Germany: Bismarck [chancellor], Nachtigal [treaty negotiations and other work on the ground]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

トーゴ、カメルーン、現在のナミビアなどの諸社会Societies in Togo, Cameroon, present-day Namibia and elsewhere

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

会社・商人の活動を国家が支援。「保護」の条約や宣言を植民地支配につなげる。The state supported the activities of companies and merchants. "Protection" treaties and declarations were linked to colonial rule.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

現地社会を外部国家の支配へ組み込む。ビスマルクは欧州政治だけでなく、植民地獲得にも関与した。Local societies were incorporated under the rule of an external state. Bismarck was involved not only in European politics but also in the acquisition of colonies.

レオポルド2世のコンゴ支配Leopold II's rule of the Congo

植民地支配Colonial rule

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ベルギー国王レオポルド2世。初期はベルギー国家の植民地ではなく、国王を主権者とする「コンゴ自由国」。King Leopold II of Belgium. In the early period, not a colony of the Belgian state but the "Congo Free State" with the king as sovereign.

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

コンゴ各地の人々・抵抗勢力People and resistance forces in various parts of the Congo

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

武装組織と企業による土地・資源支配。ゴムなどの採取を強制。Control of land and resources by armed organizations and companies. Forced extraction of rubber and other goods.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

強制労働、暴力、移住、生活基盤の破壊。「自由国」という名称と住民の実態が大きく隔たる。Forced labor, violence, displacement and destruction of the basis of livelihood. The name "Free State" is greatly at odds with the reality for the residents.

第三次英緬戦争Third Anglo-Burmese War

英国によるビルマ王国征服British conquest of the Kingdom of Burma

別の呼び名：第三次ビルマ戦争／第三次英・ビルマ戦争Also known as: Third Burma War / Third Anglo-Burmese War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：ダファリン〔インド総督〕、プレンダーガスト〔軍司令官〕Britain: Dufferin [viceroy of India], Prendergast [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ビルマ：ティーボー〔国王〕Burma: Thibaw [king]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

河川を利用した遠征。王都占領、王の追放、併合宣言。An expedition using rivers. Occupation of the royal capital, expulsion of the king, and a declaration of annexation.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

王国が失われ、英領インドに組み込まれる。併合後も抵抗が続いた。The kingdom was lost and incorporated into British India. Resistance continued after the annexation.

ハワイ王国の転覆と米国による併合The overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and its annexation by the United States

政変・併合Coup and annexation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：スティーヴンズ〔1893年の公使〕、マッキンリー〔1898年の大統領〕。現地の転覆勢力：サンフォード・ドールUnited States: Stevens [minister in 1893], McKinley [president in 1898]. Local overthrow faction: Sanford Dole

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ハワイ：リリウオカラニ〔女王〕、先住ハワイ人の反併合運動Hawaii: Liliuokalani [queen], the Native Hawaiian anti-annexation movement

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1893年、米軍が上陸する中で王政が転覆。1898年、米国議会の共同決議で併合。先住民による反併合請願があった。In 1893, the monarchy was overthrown while U.S. forces were landing. In 1898, annexation was carried out by a joint resolution of the U.S. Congress. Native Hawaiians submitted anti-annexation petitions.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

住民の同意が当然にあった「獲得」ではない。王国の主権と先住民の政治的な自己決定が失われた。It was not an "acquisition" in which the consent of the residents could be taken for granted. The kingdom's sovereignty and the political self-determination of Native Hawaiians were lost.

日清戦争First Sino-Japanese War

日清戦争・日本による台湾植民地化The First Sino-Japanese War and Japan's colonization of Taiwan

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：伊藤博文〔首相〕、陸奥宗光〔外相〕Japan: Ito Hirobumi [prime minister], Mutsu Munemitsu [foreign minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

清：光緒帝、李鴻章。朝鮮：高宗。台湾の住民・抵抗勢力。Qing: Guangxu Emperor, Li Hongzhang. Korea: Gojong. Residents and resistance forces of Taiwan.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

朝鮮をめぐる対立から戦争。蒸気軍艦・海上輸送。下関条約で台湾・澎湖諸島を割譲。War arose from the conflict over Korea. Steam warships and sea transport. Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were ceded under the Treaty of Shimonoseki.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

朝鮮が戦場となり、台湾では住民の同意を経ず支配者が変更された。日本軍への抵抗が続く。Korea became a battlefield, and in Taiwan the ruler was changed without the consent of the residents. Resistance to the Japanese army continued.

ポルトガルによるガザ王国征服〔現在のモザンビーク〕The Portuguese conquest of the Kingdom of Gaza [in present-day Mozambique]

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ポルトガル：モウジーニョ・デ・アルブケルケ〔軍人〕Portugal: Mouzinho de Albuquerque [military officer]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ガザ王国：グングニャーナ〔国王〕Kingdom of Gaza: Ngungunyane [king]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍事作戦と王の拘束・移送。Military operations, and the detention and removal of the king.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

現地王国の権力が破壊され、植民地支配が強化される。The power of the local kingdom was destroyed, and colonial rule was strengthened.

第一次エチオピア戦争First Italo-Ethiopian War

イタリアのエチオピア侵攻Italy's invasion of Ethiopia

別の呼び名：第一次イタリア・エチオピア戦争Also known as: First Italo-Ethiopian War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イタリア：クリスピ〔首相〕、バラティエリ〔軍司令官〕Italy: Crispi [prime minister], Baratieri [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

エチオピア：メネリク2世〔皇帝〕、タイトゥ〔皇后・政治軍事指導者〕Ethiopia: Menelik II [emperor], Taytu [empress and political and military leader]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

条約の解釈対立から戦争。エチオピア側も近代的な銃器を調達。War arose from a dispute over the interpretation of a treaty. The Ethiopian side also procured modern firearms.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

アドワの戦いでイタリアが敗北。アフリカ側が侵攻を撃退し、独立を守った重要な例。Italy was defeated at the Battle of Adwa. An important example of the African side repelling an invasion and defending its independence.

キューバ独立戦争〔1895〜1898年〕Cuban War of Independence [1895–1898]

スペインによるキューバ独立運動の弾圧Spain's suppression of the Cuban independence movement

植民地維持Maintaining a colony

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

スペイン：ウェイレル〔総督・軍人〕Spain: Weyler [governor and military officer]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

キューバの独立運動、農村住民The Cuban independence movement, rural residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ゲリラへの支援を断つため、農村住民を強制的に集住させる。Rural residents were forcibly concentrated in order to cut off support for the guerrillas.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

戦闘員以外も生活手段を失い、飢餓・病気にさらされた。植民地を「維持する」戦争も含める必要がある。People other than combatants also lost their means of living and were exposed to famine and disease. Wars to "maintain" a colony also need to be included.

マフディー戦争〔スーダン征服の段階〕The Mahdist War [stage of the conquest of Sudan]

英・エジプト軍によるスーダン征服The conquest of Sudan by British and Egyptian forces

別の呼び名：スーダン戦争／第二次スーダン戦争〔この遠征を指す呼称〕Also known as: Sudan War / Second Sudan War [names referring to this expedition]

戦争全体は1880年代から続いていました。このカードは1896〜1898年の英・エジプト軍による征服を扱います。The war as a whole had continued since the 1880s. This card deals with the conquest by British and Egyptian forces in 1896–1898.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：ソールズベリー〔首相〕、キッチナー〔軍司令官〕Britain: Salisbury [prime minister], Kitchener [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

マフディー国家：アブドゥラーヒ〔カリフ〕、地域の住民Mahdist state: Abdullahi [khalifa], local residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

英・エジプト軍が南進。1898年オムドゥルマンの戦いなどでマフディー国家を倒す。British and Egyptian forces advanced south. In 1898, they defeated the Mahdist state in battles including the Battle of Omdurman.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

現地の政治体制が破壊され、英・エジプト共同統治へ。軍事的な勝利の説明だけでは住民への支配拡大を捉えられない。The local political system was destroyed, and Anglo-Egyptian joint rule followed. An account of military victory alone cannot capture the expansion of domination over the residents.

米西戦争・米比戦争Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War

米西戦争と米比戦争The Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War

別の呼び名：米西戦争＝アメリカ・スペイン戦争／米比戦争＝アメリカ・フィリピン戦争Also known as: Spanish–American War = American–Spanish War / Philippine–American War = American–Philippine War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：マッキンリー〔大統領〕、デューイ〔海軍指揮官〕United States: McKinley [president], Dewey [naval commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

スペイン。フィリピン：アギナルド〔独立運動・共和国の指導者〕Spain. Philippines: Aguinaldo [leader of the independence movement and the republic]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

米国がスペインに勝利。パリ条約でフィリピンなどを獲得し、その後フィリピン独立勢力と戦争。The United States defeated Spain. Under the Treaty of Paris it acquired the Philippines and other territories, and then fought a war with Philippine independence forces.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

スペインからの独立を目指した人々にとって、米国という新たな支配者との戦争になった。For people who had sought independence from Spain, it became a war against a new ruler, the United States.

第二次ボーア戦争Second Boer War

英国とボーア共和国の戦争The war between Britain and the Boer republics

別の呼び名：ボーア戦争／南アフリカ戦争Also known as: Boer War / South African War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：チェンバレン〔植民地相〕、キッチナー〔軍司令官〕Britain: Chamberlain [colonial secretary], Kitchener [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

南アフリカ共和国：クリューガー〔大統領〕などSouth African Republic: Kruger [president] and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

緊張の末、ボーア側が宣戦。英国は焦土作戦と住民収容を実施し、共和国を併合。After a period of tension, the Boer side declared war. Britain carried out scorched-earth tactics and the internment of residents, and annexed the republics.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

ボーア住民に加え、黒人アフリカ人も拘束・被害を受ける。開戦の主体と、最終的な征服の主体は分けて見る。In addition to Boer residents, Black Africans were also detained and harmed. Distinguish between the party that started the war and the party that carried out the final conquest.

義和団事件〔北清事変〕The Boxer Incident [Boxer Rebellion]

義和団事件と八か国軍の清への出兵The Boxer Incident and the dispatch of troops to Qing China by the Eight-Nation Alliance

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国・フランス・ドイツ・ロシア・米国・日本・イタリア・オーストリア＝ハンガリー。日本：山口素臣〔師団長〕、ドイツ：ヴァルダーゼー〔後期の連合軍司令官〕Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, Japan, Italy, Austria-Hungary. Japan: Yamaguchi Motoomi [division commander]; Germany: Waldersee [later commander of the allied forces]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

清：西太后、李鴻章〔講和交渉〕。義和団、各地の住民Qing: Empress Dowager Cixi, Li Hongzhang [peace negotiations]. The Boxers, residents of various regions

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

義和団による外国人・中国人キリスト教徒への攻撃と公使館包囲を受け、多国籍軍が進軍。1901年北京議定書で賠償・駐兵など。In response to the Boxers' attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians and the siege of the legations, a multinational force advanced. Under the Boxer Protocol of 1901, indemnities, the stationing of troops and other terms were imposed.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

襲撃の被害と、外国軍による略奪・報復の被害を分けて見る。清の主権はさらに制限された。Distinguish between the harm caused by the attacks and the harm caused by looting and reprisals by foreign troops. Qing sovereignty was restricted further.

ドイツによるヘレロ・ナマの虐殺The German massacre of the Herero and Nama

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ドイツ：トロータ〔軍司令官〕、帝国の植民地当局Germany: Trotha [military commander], the colonial authorities of the empire

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

現在のナミビアのヘレロ、ナマの人々The Herero and Nama peoples of present-day Namibia

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

植民地支配への抵抗に対し、殲滅命令、追放、収容所・強制労働。In response to resistance to colonial rule, an extermination order, expulsion, camps and forced labor.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

多数が殺害され、渇き・飢餓などでも死亡。ジェノサイドとして認められている。Many were killed, and many also died of thirst, starvation and other causes. It has been recognized as genocide.

日露戦争Russo-Japanese War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：桂太郎〔首相〕、小村寿太郎〔外相〕。ロシア：ニコライ2世〔皇帝〕Japan: Katsura Taro [prime minister], Komura Jutaro [foreign minister]. Russia: Nicholas II [emperor]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

主な戦場は清の満洲と、その周辺。朝鮮も軍事・政治的圧力を受ける。The main battlefields were Manchuria in Qing China and its surrounding areas. Korea was also subjected to military and political pressure.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

鉄道、蒸気軍艦、大量輸送。ポーツマス条約。Railways, steam warships and mass transport. The Treaty of Portsmouth.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

日本とロシアの戦争だが、土地と暮らしを損なわれた中国・朝鮮の人々も年表の主体に入れるべき。It was a war between Japan and Russia, but the Chinese and Korean people whose land and livelihoods were damaged should also be included as subjects of the timeline.

日本による韓国の外交権剝奪・併合Japan's deprivation of Korea's diplomatic rights and annexation of Korea

強制編入Forced incorporation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：伊藤博文〔統監〕、寺内正毅〔統監・初代総督〕Japan: Ito Hirobumi [resident-general], Terauchi Masatake [resident-general and first governor-general]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

韓国：高宗・純宗〔皇帝〕、義兵などの抵抗勢力Korea: Gojong and Sunjong [emperors], resistance forces such as the Righteous Armies

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1905年に外交権を奪い、1910年に併合条約。軍事的圧力の下で支配を拡大。In 1905, Japan took away Korea's diplomatic rights, and in 1910 concluded an annexation treaty. It expanded its domination under military pressure.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

国家としての主権を失い、植民地統治へ。「条約がある」ことと「自由に同意した」ことは別。Korea lost its sovereignty as a state and came under colonial rule. The existence of a "treaty" is a separate matter from having "freely consented."

イタリア・トルコ戦争Italo-Turkish War

イタリアによるリビア侵攻Italy's invasion of Libya

別の呼び名：伊土戦争／リビア戦争〔1911〜1912年〕Also known as: Italo-Turkish War / Libyan War [1911–1912]

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イタリア：ジョリッティ〔首相〕Italy: Giolitti [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

オスマン帝国の軍と、リビアの地域社会The Ottoman military and Libyan local communities

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

海軍で兵員を輸送。航空機を偵察・爆撃に使用。Troops were transported by the navy. Aircraft were used for reconnaissance and bombing.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

オスマン帝国との戦争後も、現地の抵抗は続く。飛行機は初期から植民地戦争に投入された。Local resistance continued even after the war with the Ottoman Empire. Airplanes were used in colonial wars from an early stage.

第一次世界大戦World War I

オーストリア＝ハンガリーのセルビア攻撃、ドイツのベルギー・フランス侵攻から第一次世界大戦へFrom Austria-Hungary's attack on Serbia and Germany's invasion of Belgium and France to World War I

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

オーストリア＝ハンガリー：フランツ・ヨーゼフ〔皇帝〕。ドイツ：ヴィルヘルム2世〔皇帝〕、モルトケ〔参謀総長〕Austria-Hungary: Franz Joseph [emperor]. Germany: Wilhelm II [emperor], Moltke [chief of the general staff]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

セルビア、ベルギー、フランスなどSerbia, Belgium, France and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

最後通牒・宣戦・侵攻が連鎖。鉄道による動員、砲兵、機関銃。Ultimatums, declarations of war and invasions followed in a chain. Mobilization by rail, artillery and machine guns.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

欧州の戦争が、帝国の植民地と海上交通を通じて世界へ広がる。植民地の人々も兵士・労働者として動員された。A European war spread across the world through imperial colonies and sea lanes. Colonial peoples were also mobilized as soldiers and laborers.

第一次世界大戦〔日本の参戦・対中要求〕World War I [Japan's entry into the war and demands on China]

日本による青島・南洋諸島の占領、中国への二十一か条要求Japan's occupation of Qingdao and the South Sea Islands, and the Twenty-One Demands on China

このカードは大戦全体ではなく、日本による1914〜1915年の行動を扱います。This card deals not with the whole war but with Japan's actions in 1914–1915.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：大隈重信〔首相〕、加藤高明〔外相〕Japan: Okuma Shigenobu [prime minister], Kato Takaaki [foreign minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ドイツの租借地・植民地。中国：袁世凱〔大総統〕German leased territory and colonies. China: Yuan Shikai [president]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

第一次世界大戦への参戦を機に占領。中国へ権益拡大を要求。Japan occupied them on the occasion of entering World War I. It demanded the expansion of its interests in China.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

ドイツの権益が日本へ移ることは、中国や島々の住民にとって独立を意味しなかった。The transfer of German interests to Japan did not mean independence for China or for the residents of the islands.

シベリア出兵Siberian Intervention

日本などによるシベリア出兵The Siberian Intervention by Japan and others

内戦への介入Intervention in a civil war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：寺内正毅・原敬〔派兵・継続時の首相〕。米国：ウィルソン〔大統領〕。英国・フランスなども参加Japan: Terauchi Masatake and Hara Takashi [prime ministers at the time of dispatching and continuing the troops]. United States: Wilson [president]. Britain, France and others also took part

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ロシアのボリシェヴィキ政権、反革命勢力、地域住民、チェコスロヴァキア軍団The Russian Bolshevik government, counter-revolutionary forces, local residents, the Czechoslovak Legion

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍団救援などを掲げロシア内戦へ介入。日本は大規模な派兵と占領を続け、1922年に沿海州から撤兵。北樺太占領は1925年に終了。Citing the relief of the Legion and other reasons, they intervened in the Russian Civil War. Japan continued a large-scale dispatch of troops and occupation, and withdrew from the Maritime Province in 1922. The occupation of northern Sakhalin ended in 1925.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

内戦に外国軍の介入が重なった。地域住民は戦闘・占領にさらされ、日本側にも人的・財政的負担が生じた。Foreign military intervention was layered on top of a civil war. Local residents were exposed to fighting and occupation, and the Japanese side also bore human and financial burdens.

リーフ戦争Rif War

スペイン・フランスによるリーフ地域の征服戦争The war of conquest by Spain and France in the Rif region

別の呼び名：リフ戦争Also known as: Riff War (variant romanization of Rif)

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

スペイン：プリモ・デ・リベラ〔後期の政府指導者〕。フランス：ペタン〔軍司令官〕Spain: Primo de Rivera [government leader in the later period]. France: Pétain [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

モロッコのリーフ地域：アブド・エル・クリム〔抵抗・共和国の指導者〕The Rif region of Morocco: Abd el-Krim [leader of the resistance and the republic]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

スペイン軍への抵抗でリーフ共和国が成立。フランスも介入し、両国軍が攻撃を拡大。1926年にアブド・エル・クリムが降伏。The Republic of the Rif was established through resistance to the Spanish army. France also intervened, and the armies of both countries expanded their attacks. In 1926, Abd el-Krim surrendered.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

独立を目指した地域社会が植民地支配へ組み込まれる。欧州側の「治安回復」という説明と、抵抗する側の目的を区別する。A regional community that sought independence was incorporated into colonial rule. Distinguish the European explanation of "restoring order" from the aims of those who resisted.

満洲事変Manchurian Incident

日本軍による満洲侵攻と「満洲国」樹立The Japanese army's invasion of Manchuria and the establishment of "Manchukuo"

別の呼び名：満州事変Also known as: Manchurian Incident (variant Japanese spelling of Manchuria)

「事変」という慣用名と、日本軍による侵攻・占領という行動を併記しています。It sets side by side the customary name "Incident" and the action of invasion and occupation by the Japanese army.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：石原莞爾・板垣征四郎〔関東軍将校〕。政府は若槻礼次郎内閣など。Japan: Ishiwara Kanji and Itagaki Seishiro [Kwantung Army officers]. The government was the Wakatsuki Reijiro cabinet and others.

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

中国：張学良〔東北の軍事指導者〕、蒋介石〔国民政府の指導者〕。溥儀〔日本が擁立〕China: Zhang Xueliang [military leader of the Northeast], Chiang Kai-shek [leader of the Nationalist Government]. Puyi [installed by Japan]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

鉄道爆破事件を口実に軍事行動を拡大。鉄道・航空機を利用。Military action was expanded using a railway bombing incident as a pretext. Railways and aircraft were used.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

中国の領域に、日本軍の強い支配下にある国家を設置。軍の現地行動と政府の判断を区別して追う必要がある。A state under strong Japanese military control was set up in Chinese territory. It is necessary to trace the army's local actions and the government's decisions separately.

第二次エチオピア戦争Second Italo-Ethiopian War

イタリアのエチオピア再侵攻Italy's renewed invasion of Ethiopia

別の呼び名：第二次イタリア・エチオピア戦争Also known as: Second Italo-Ethiopian War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イタリア：ムッソリーニ〔独裁者〕、バドリオ〔軍司令官〕Italy: Mussolini [dictator], Badoglio [military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

エチオピア：ハイレ・セラシエ〔皇帝〕Ethiopia: Haile Selassie [emperor]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

航空攻撃、地上軍、毒ガスを使用。Air attacks, ground forces and poison gas were used.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

首都を占領し、帝国への編入を宣言。住民の抵抗は続く。1896年に撃退した相手による再侵攻。The capital was occupied, and incorporation into the empire was declared. Resistance by residents continued. It was a renewed invasion by the country that had been repelled in 1896.

日中戦争Second Sino-Japanese War

日本による中国への全面的な戦争拡大Japan's full-scale expansion of the war against China

ここでは1937年からの全面的な戦争拡大を扱います。1931年からの経緯は「満洲事変」のカードに記載しています。This card deals with the full-scale expansion of the war from 1937. The developments since 1931 are described on the "Manchurian Incident" card.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：近衛文麿〔開戦時の首相〕、昭和天皇、陸海軍指導部Japan: Konoe Fumimaro [prime minister at the outbreak of war], Emperor Showa, army and navy leadership

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

中国：蒋介石、毛沢東〔共産党指導者〕、各地の住民・抵抗勢力China: Chiang Kai-shek, Mao Zedong [Communist Party leader], residents and resistance forces in various regions

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

盧溝橋事件後に戦争拡大。航空爆撃、海上輸送、鉄道沿いの占領。The war expanded after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Air bombing, sea transport, and occupation along railways.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

大量の避難民、虐殺、都市・農村の破壊。中国側は政府・共産党・地域社会がそれぞれ抵抗した。Large numbers of refugees, massacres, and the destruction of cities and rural areas. On the Chinese side, the government, the Communist Party and local communities each resisted.

ナチ・ドイツによるオーストリア併合・チェコスロヴァキア解体Nazi Germany's annexation of Austria and dismemberment of Czechoslovakia

威圧・占領・併合Coercion, occupation and annexation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ドイツ：ヒトラー〔指導者〕Germany: Hitler [leader]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

オーストリア：シュシュニック〔首相〕。チェコスロヴァキア：ベネシュ〔1938年の大統領〕、ハーハ〔1939年の大統領〕Austria: Schuschnigg [chancellor]. Czechoslovakia: Beneš [president in 1938], Hácha [president in 1939]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1938年、軍進駐とオーストリア併合。ミュンヘン協定でズデーテン地方を獲得し、1939年にはチェコ地域も占領。In 1938, troops entered Austria and it was annexed. Germany gained the Sudeten region through the Munich Agreement, and in 1939 also occupied the Czech lands.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

威圧、国際交渉、占領を組み合わせた拡張。現地の同意を単純に想定できず、ユダヤ人などへの迫害も拡大した。An expansion that combined coercion, international negotiation and occupation. Local consent cannot simply be assumed, and persecution of Jews and others also expanded.

第二次世界大戦〔ポーランド侵攻〕World War II [Invasion of Poland]

ドイツとソ連によるポーランド侵攻・分割The invasion and partition of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union

大戦全体ではなく、1939年のドイツ・ソ連による侵攻と分割を扱います。This card deals not with the whole war but with the 1939 invasion and partition by Germany and the Soviet Union.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ドイツ：ヒトラー。ソ連：スターリン。Germany: Hitler. Soviet Union: Stalin.

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ポーランド：モシチツキ〔大統領〕、軍・住民Poland: Moscicki [president], the military and residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

独ソ不可侵条約の秘密議定書を背景に、ドイツが西から、ソ連が東から侵攻。Against the background of the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany invaded from the west and the Soviet Union from the east.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

国家が分割され、双方の占領下で住民が迫害・拘束・移送を受ける。The state is partitioned, and residents suffer persecution, detention and deportation under the occupation by both sides.

冬戦争Winter War

ソ連のフィンランド侵攻〔冬戦争〕Soviet invasion of Finland [Winter War]

別の呼び名：ソ連・フィンランド戦争〔1939〜1940年〕／第一次ソ芬戦争Also known as: Soviet–Finnish War [1939–1940] / First Soviet–Finnish War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ソ連：スターリンSoviet Union: Stalin

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

フィンランド：マンネルヘイム〔軍総司令官〕Finland: Mannerheim [commander-in-chief of the army]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

領土などをめぐる交渉決裂後、侵攻。戦車・航空機と冬季の防衛戦。Invasion after negotiations over territory and other matters broke down. Tanks, aircraft and a defensive war in winter.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

フィンランドは領土を失うが、独立を維持。軍事大国が短期間で征服できるとは限らなかった。Finland lost territory but kept its independence. A military great power could not always conquer a country in a short time.

イタリアによるアルバニア侵攻・占領Italian invasion and occupation of Albania

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イタリア：ムッソリーニ〔政府指導者〕、ヴィットーリオ・エマヌエーレ3世〔国王〕Italy: Mussolini [head of government], Victor Emmanuel III [king]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

アルバニア：ゾグ1世〔国王〕、住民Albania: Zog I [king], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

4月、軍が侵攻。ゾグ1世は国外へ逃れ、イタリア国王がアルバニア王位も兼ねる体制を作る。In April, the army invaded. Zog I fled abroad, and a system was created in which the Italian king also held the Albanian throne.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

独立国家の決定権が奪われ、のちのギリシャ攻撃の拠点にもされた。The independent state's power of decision was taken away, and Albania was also used as a base for the later attack on Greece.

第二次世界大戦〔ドイツの欧州・ソ連侵攻〕World War II [German invasion of Europe and the Soviet Union]

ドイツによる欧州各地・ソ連への侵攻German invasions of various parts of Europe and of the Soviet Union

大戦全体ではなく、1940〜1941年に拡大した侵攻を扱います。This covers not the whole war but the invasions that expanded in 1940–1941.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ドイツ：ヒトラー、国防軍指導部Germany: Hitler, Wehrmacht leadership

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

フランス、オランダ、ノルウェー、ユーゴスラビア、ソ連などFrance, the Netherlands, Norway, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

戦車・航空機・無線を組み合わせた作戦。1941年には独ソ不可侵条約を破って侵攻。Operations combining tanks, aircraft and radio. In 1941, Germany invaded in breach of the German–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

占領、略奪、強制労働、住民殺害。ソ連は1939年には侵攻する側、1941年にはドイツに侵攻される側となる。Occupation, plunder, forced labor and the killing of residents. The Soviet Union was an invading side in 1939 and, in 1941, was invaded by Germany.

ソ連によるバルト三国の占領・併合Soviet occupation and annexation of the Baltic states

占領・併合Occupation and annexation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ソ連：スターリン〔指導者〕、モロトフ〔外相〕Soviet Union: Stalin [leader], Molotov [foreign minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

エストニア・ラトビア・リトアニアの政府と住民。リトアニア：スメトナ〔大統領〕Governments and residents of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Lithuania: Smetona [president]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍事的圧力と進駐の下で政権を変更し、ソ連への編入を進める。Under military pressure and the stationing of troops, governments were changed and incorporation into the Soviet Union was advanced.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

形式上の政治手続きがあっても自由な自己決定とはいえない。主権喪失に加え、拘束・移送などの抑圧が続いた。Even with formal political procedures, this cannot be called free self-determination. Beyond the loss of sovereignty, repression such as detention and deportation continued.

ギリシャ・イタリア戦争とドイツの侵攻Greco-Italian War and the German invasion

イタリアによるギリシャ侵攻とドイツの介入Italian invasion of Greece and German intervention

第二次世界大戦の一部。1940年のイタリアによる侵攻と、1941年のドイツの介入を扱います。Part of World War II. This covers the Italian invasion in 1940 and the German intervention in 1941.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イタリア：ムッソリーニ。ドイツ：ヒトラーItaly: Mussolini. Germany: Hitler

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ギリシャ：メタクサス〔侵攻時の首相〕、住民Greece: Metaxas [prime minister at the time of the invasion], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1940年10月、占領下のアルバニアからイタリア軍が侵攻。ギリシャ側が反撃。1941年、ドイツが侵攻し占領へ。In October 1940, Italian forces invaded from occupied Albania. The Greek side counterattacked. In 1941, Germany invaded, leading to occupation.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

侵攻を受けた社会に占領、食糧難、迫害が重なる。イタリアの侵攻が初めから成功したわけではない。Occupation, food shortages and persecution were layered onto the invaded society. The Italian invasion did not succeed from the start.

太平洋戦争〔第二次世界大戦の一部〕Pacific War [part of World War II]

日本による東南アジア・太平洋への攻撃と占領Japanese attacks on and occupation of Southeast Asia and the Pacific

日本による東南アジア・太平洋への攻撃と占領を扱います。日中戦争とのつながりも含む、より広い呼称として「アジア・太平洋戦争」があります。This covers Japanese attacks on and occupation of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. A broader name that also includes the link to the Sino-Japanese War is the "Asia-Pacific War."

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

日本：東条英機〔首相〕、昭和天皇、山本五十六〔連合艦隊司令長官〕Japan: Tojo Hideki [prime minister], Emperor Showa, Yamamoto Isoroku [commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

米英蘭などの軍、そして中国・東南アジア・太平洋の住民The forces of the United States, Britain, the Netherlands and others, and residents of China, Southeast Asia and the Pacific

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

空母、航空機、上陸作戦。資源確保を重視し、真珠湾・マラヤなどを攻撃。Aircraft carriers, aircraft and amphibious landings. Placing emphasis on securing resources, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Malaya and other places.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

欧米の植民地支配を排除すると掲げながら、日本の軍事支配、徴発、強制労働などをもたらした。While declaring that it would remove Western colonial rule, Japan brought military rule, requisitioning, forced labor and more.

インドネシア独立戦争Indonesian War of Independence

オランダによるインドネシア再支配の戦争The Dutch war to reassert control over Indonesia

別の呼び名：インドネシア独立革命Also known as: Indonesian National Revolution

植民地再支配Reimposition of colonial rule

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

オランダ：ファン・モーク〔植民地行政の指導者〕Netherlands: van Mook [leader of the colonial administration]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

インドネシア：スカルノ〔独立宣言・共和国大統領〕、ハッタ〔副大統領〕、住民Indonesia: Sukarno [proclaimed independence; president of the republic], Hatta [vice president], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1945年の独立宣言後、オランダは軍事作戦で植民地支配の回復を図る。交渉と戦闘を経て1949年に主権移譲。After the 1945 proclamation of independence, the Netherlands sought to restore colonial rule through military operations. After negotiations and fighting, sovereignty was transferred in 1949.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

「警察行動」という呼称では独立勢力への大規模な軍事攻撃が見えにくい。住民への暴力を含む脱植民地化戦争だった。The term "police action" makes it hard to see the large-scale military attacks on the independence forces. It was a decolonization war that included violence against residents.

第一次インドシナ戦争First Indochina War

フランスによるインドシナの植民地支配維持戦争France's war to maintain its colonial rule in Indochina

別の呼び名：インドシナ戦争／フランス・ベトナム戦争Also known as: Indochina War / Franco-Vietnamese War

植民地維持Maintaining a colony

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

フランス：ルクレール〔初期の軍司令官〕、ナヴァール〔末期の軍司令官〕France: Leclerc [early military commander], Navarre [late military commander]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ベトナム：ホー・チ・ミン、ヴォー・グエン・ザップ。ラオス・カンボジアの住民・独立勢力Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh, Vo Nguyen Giap. Residents and independence forces of Laos and Cambodia

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

独立と再支配をめぐり戦争。1954年ディエンビエンフーで仏軍が敗北し、ジュネーヴ協定へ。A war over independence and reassertion of control. In 1954, French forces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu, leading to the Geneva Accords.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

住民の独立要求が長期戦の中に置かれた。停戦とベトナムの一時的な分割は、その後の対立を解消しなかった。The residents' demand for independence was placed within a long war. The ceasefire and the temporary partition of Vietnam did not resolve the subsequent conflict.

第一次中東戦争First Arab–Israeli War

第一次中東戦争とパレスチナ人の大規模な避難・追放First Arab–Israeli War and the mass displacement and expulsion of Palestinians

別の呼び名：1948年のアラブ・イスラエル戦争Also known as: Arab–Israeli War of 1948

国家形成・領域戦争State formation and territorial war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イスラエル：ベングリオン〔首相〕。周辺アラブ諸国：アブドゥッラー1世〔ヨルダン国王〕、ファールーク〔エジプト国王〕などIsrael: Ben-Gurion [prime minister]. Neighboring Arab states: Abdullah I [king of Jordan], Farouk [king of Egypt] and others

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

パレスチナのアラブ人・ユダヤ人、周辺諸国の住民Palestinian Arabs and Jews, residents of neighboring countries

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1947年からの共同体間の戦闘に続き、1948年のイスラエル独立宣言後、周辺アラブ諸国軍が参戦。1949年、休戦協定。After intercommunal fighting from 1947, the armies of neighboring Arab states entered the war following Israel's declaration of independence in 1948. Armistice agreements in 1949.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

パレスチナ人の大量の避難・追放は「ナクバ」と記憶される。双方の民間人被害を扱い、国境・帰還・国家形成の未解決問題を残した。The mass displacement and expulsion of Palestinians is remembered as the "Nakba." Civilian harm on both sides is addressed, and unresolved issues of borders, return and state formation remained.

朝鮮戦争Korean War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

北朝鮮：金日成。ソ連のスターリンが開戦を承認。North Korea: Kim Il Sung. Stalin of the Soviet Union approved the start of the war.

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

韓国：李承晩。米国・国連軍、中国も参戦。South Korea: Syngman Rhee. The United States and United Nations forces, and China, also took part.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

北朝鮮が韓国へ侵攻。その後、双方の軍が境界を越えて進撃し、中国も介入。North Korea invaded South Korea. Subsequently, the forces of both sides advanced across the boundary, and China intervened.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

大規模な破壊と避難を経て休戦。領土征服、国際的介入、住民の被害をそれぞれ分けて見る。An armistice followed large-scale destruction and displacement. Territorial conquest, international intervention and harm to residents should be viewed separately.

中国人民解放軍のチベット進軍と統治拡大People's Liberation Army advance into Tibet and expansion of rule

進軍・統治拡大Advance and expansion of rule

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

中国：毛沢東〔指導者〕China: Mao Zedong [leader]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

チベット：ダライ・ラマ14世、ガプー・ガワン・ジグメ〔交渉代表〕、住民Tibet: 14th Dalai Lama, Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme [negotiating representative], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1950年、人民解放軍がチャムドへ進軍。1951年、十七か条協定で中国の主権下への組み込みが進む。In 1950, the People's Liberation Army advanced on Chamdo. In 1951, incorporation under Chinese sovereignty progressed through the Seventeen Point Agreement.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

中国政府の「解放」という名称と、自治・自己決定を失ったというチベット側の経験は異なる。従前の地位と協定の正当性は争われている。The Chinese government's term "liberation" differs from the Tibetan experience of losing autonomy and self-determination. The previous status of Tibet and the legitimacy of the agreement are disputed.

アルジェリア戦争Algerian War

フランスによるアルジェリア独立運動との戦争France's war against the Algerian independence movement

別の呼び名：アルジェリア独立戦争Also known as: Algerian War of Independence

植民地維持Maintaining a colony

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

フランス：ギー・モレ〔首相〕、ドゴール〔後期の大統領〕、マシュ〔軍人〕France: Guy Mollet [prime minister], de Gaulle [president in the later period], Massu [military officer]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

アルジェリア：FLN〔民族解放戦線〕、ベン・ベラなどの指導者、住民Algeria: FLN [National Liberation Front], leaders such as Ben Bella, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

独立運動への軍事作戦、拘束・拷問など。1962年エヴィアン協定と独立。Military operations against the independence movement, detention, torture and more. The Evian Accords and independence in 1962.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

独立を求める住民、入植者、フランス協力者などに異なる被害と移動が生じた。植民地維持を「秩序回復」だけで説明しない。Residents seeking independence, settlers, French collaborators and others suffered different harms and displacements. Maintaining a colony should not be explained only as "restoring order."

第二次中東戦争〔スエズ戦争〕Second Arab–Israeli War [Suez War]

英仏・イスラエルのエジプト攻撃〔スエズ戦争〕British, French and Israeli attack on Egypt [Suez War]

別の呼び名：スエズ危機Also known as: Suez Crisis

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

英国：イーデン〔首相〕。フランス：ギー・モレ〔首相〕。イスラエル：ベングリオン〔首相〕Britain: Eden [prime minister]. France: Guy Mollet [prime minister]. Israel: Ben-Gurion [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

エジプト：ナセル〔大統領〕Egypt: Nasser [president]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

秘密の協議後に攻撃。スエズ運河国有化をめぐる争い。Attack after secret consultations. A dispute over the nationalization of the Suez Canal.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

国際的な圧力を受け撤兵した。軍事力があっても、政治・外交が行動を制限する例。They withdrew under international pressure. An example in which, even with military power, politics and diplomacy limited action.

ハンガリー動乱〔ハンガリー革命〕Hungarian Uprising [Hungarian Revolution]

ソ連によるハンガリーへの軍事介入Soviet military intervention in Hungary

同盟圏への介入Intervention in an allied bloc

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ソ連：フルシチョフ〔指導者〕Soviet Union: Khrushchev [leader]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ハンガリー：ナジ・イムレ〔首相〕、改革を求めた人々。カーダール〔介入後の政権指導者〕Hungary: Imre Nagy [prime minister], people who demanded reform. Kadar [leader of the government after the intervention]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

蜂起と政治改革に対しソ連軍が介入。11月に大規模攻撃を行い、政権交代を支える。Soviet forces intervened against the uprising and political reform. In November they carried out a large-scale attack, supporting a change of government.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

同盟圏内の国家・住民の選択が軍事力で抑えられ、死傷・国外避難・処罰が生じた。The choices of the state and residents within the allied bloc were suppressed by military force, resulting in deaths and injuries, flight abroad and punishment.

中印戦争Sino-Indian War

中印国境戦争Sino-Indian border war

別の呼び名：中印国境戦争／中国・インド戦争Also known as: Sino-Indian border war / China–India War

国境戦争Border war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

中国：毛沢東、周恩来〔首相〕。インド：ネルー〔首相〕China: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai [premier]. India: Nehru [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

国境地域の住民と両国の兵士Residents of the border region and soldiers of both countries

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

領有権と国境をめぐる対立・前進配置の末、中国軍が大規模攻撃。中国側の一方的停戦で主要戦闘が終わる。After a confrontation over territorial claims and the border and a forward deployment, Chinese forces launched a large-scale attack. The main fighting ended with a unilateral ceasefire by China.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

国境紛争は海上帝国の拡張とは異なる。国境の主張と、実際の軍事行動・住民への影響を分ける。A border dispute differs from the expansion of a maritime empire. Separate the border claims from the actual military action and its effects on residents.

ベトナム戦争〔米国の大規模介入〕Vietnam War [large-scale U.S. intervention]

米国のベトナム戦争への大規模介入Large-scale U.S. intervention in the Vietnam War

別の呼び名：第二次インドシナ戦争Also known as: Second Indochina War

1965〜1973年はこのカードが扱う米国の大規模介入の期間です。ベトナム戦争全体の始まり・終わりを示すものではありません。1965–1973 is the period of large-scale U.S. intervention covered by this card. It does not mark the beginning or end of the Vietnam War as a whole.

内戦への介入Intervention in a civil war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：ジョンソン、ニクソン〔大統領〕United States: Johnson, Nixon [presidents]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

北ベトナム：ホー・チ・ミン、レ・ズアン。南ベトナムの政府・解放勢力・住民。North Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh, Le Duan. South Vietnam's government, liberation forces and residents.

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

南ベトナム政府を支援し、地上軍投入と北爆を拡大。Supported the South Vietnamese government and expanded the commitment of ground troops and the bombing of the North.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

植民地併合とは異なるが、内戦に外国軍が大規模介入した例。住民は空襲・戦闘・避難にさらされた。Though different from colonial annexation, an example of large-scale foreign military intervention in a civil war. Residents were exposed to air raids, fighting and displacement.

第三次中東戦争〔六日戦争〕Third Arab–Israeli War [Six-Day War]

第三次中東戦争〔六日戦争〕と占領拡大Third Arab–Israeli War [Six-Day War] and the expansion of occupation

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イスラエル：エシュコル〔首相〕、ダヤン〔国防相〕。エジプト：ナセル〔大統領〕Israel: Eshkol [prime minister], Dayan [defense minister]. Egypt: Nasser [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ヨルダン、シリア、パレスチナの住民などResidents of Jordan, Syria and Palestine, and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

危機の中、イスラエルがエジプトの飛行場などを先制攻撃。西岸・東エルサレム・ガザ・シナイ半島・ゴラン高原を占領。Amid a crisis, Israel launched a preemptive attack on Egyptian airfields and other targets. It occupied the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza, the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

新たな避難と占領下の生活が生じた。軍事的勝利と、住民の権利・政治的解決は別の問題である。New displacement and life under occupation arose. Military victory and the rights of residents and a political settlement are separate issues.

プラハの春とソ連などの軍事侵攻Prague Spring and the military invasion by the Soviet Union and others

ソ連などによるチェコスロヴァキア侵攻Invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union and others

同盟圏への介入Intervention in an allied bloc

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ソ連：ブレジネフ〔指導者〕。他のワルシャワ条約機構加盟国も参加Soviet Union: Brezhnev [leader]. Other Warsaw Pact member states also took part

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

チェコスロヴァキア：ドゥプチェク〔改革を進めた党指導者〕、住民Czechoslovakia: Dubcek [party leader who advanced reform], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

「プラハの春」の改革に対し、軍を進駐させ抑圧。Against the reforms of the "Prague Spring," troops were stationed in the country and used to suppress them.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

同盟国の改革と政治的選択を軍事力で制限。抵抗する住民が被害を受け、改革が後退した。The reforms and political choices of an allied state were restricted by military force. Residents who resisted suffered harm, and the reforms were rolled back.

第四次中東戦争Fourth Arab–Israeli War

第四次中東戦争と、その後の和平交渉Fourth Arab–Israeli War and the peace negotiations that followed

別の呼び名：ヨム・キプール戦争／十月戦争Also known as: Yom Kippur War / October War

占領地域をめぐる戦争War over occupied territories

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

エジプト：サダト〔大統領〕。シリア：ハーフィズ・アサド〔大統領〕Egypt: Sadat [president]. Syria: Hafez al-Assad [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

イスラエル：ゴルダ・メイア〔首相〕、兵士と地域住民Israel: Golda Meir [prime minister], soldiers and local residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

10月、エジプト・シリア軍が、1967年からイスラエルの占領下にあるシナイ半島・ゴラン高原の軍を攻撃。停戦後、米国などが交渉を仲介。In October, Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, which had been under Israeli occupation since 1967. After the ceasefire, the United States and others mediated negotiations.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

占領地の回復を目指す攻撃と、新たな領土征服を同じ意味で扱わない。多くの犠牲を生み、のちのエジプト・イスラエル和平につながる。An attack aimed at recovering occupied territory and new territorial conquest are not treated as meaning the same thing. It caused many casualties and led to the later Egypt–Israel peace.

キプロス紛争〔1974年のクーデター・侵攻〕Cyprus dispute [1974 coup and invasion]

キプロスのクーデターとトルコ軍の侵攻・島の分断Coup in Cyprus, Turkish invasion and partition of the island

クーデター・侵攻Coup and invasion

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ギリシャ軍事政権：イオアニディス〔実権者〕。トルコ：エジェヴィト〔首相〕Greek military junta: Ioannidis [real power holder]. Turkey: Ecevit [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

キプロス：マカリオス3世〔大統領〕、ギリシャ系・トルコ系の住民Cyprus: Makarios III [president], Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ギリシャ側が支援するクーデター後、トルコ軍が上陸。二段階の軍事作戦で北部を支配。After the coup backed by the Greek side, Turkish forces landed. Through a two-stage military operation, they took control of the north.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

双方の住民の避難・追放、行方不明、島の分断へ。クーデターと、その後の侵攻・占領を区別する。Residents on both sides were displaced and expelled, people went missing, and the island was partitioned. Distinguish the coup from the subsequent invasion and occupation.

インドネシアの東ティモール侵攻Indonesian invasion of East Timor

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

インドネシア：スハルト〔大統領〕Indonesia: Suharto [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

東ティモールの独立勢力・住民East Timorese independence forces and residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ポルトガルの植民地支配が終わる過程で侵攻し、併合。Invaded and annexed during the process of the end of Portuguese colonial rule.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

長い占領を経て、2002年に独立。独立した国も、別の地域の独立を奪う側になりうる。After a long occupation, East Timor became independent in 2002. A country that has itself become independent can also become one that takes away the independence of another region.

カンボジア・ベトナム戦争Cambodian–Vietnamese War

ベトナムのカンボジア侵攻Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia

このカードは1978〜1979年のベトナム軍の侵攻と政権交代を扱います。その後も占領・武装抵抗が続きました。This card covers the Vietnamese military invasion of 1978–1979 and the change of government. Occupation and armed resistance continued afterward.

侵攻・政権転覆Invasion and overthrow of a government

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ベトナム：レ・ズアン〔党指導者〕Vietnam: Le Duan [party leader]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

カンボジア：ポル・ポト政権、住民Cambodia: Pol Pot regime, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

国境紛争などを背景に侵攻。大量虐殺を行っていた政権を倒す。Invaded against a background that included border disputes. Overthrew a regime that had carried out mass killing.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

その後もベトナム軍の駐留と戦争が続く。政権打倒の結果と、その後の軍事支配を分けて見る。The Vietnamese military presence and the war continued afterward. Look separately at the result of overthrowing the regime and the military rule that followed.

中越戦争Sino-Vietnamese War

中国のベトナム侵攻China's invasion of Vietnam

別の呼び名：中国・ベトナム戦争Also known as: China–Vietnam War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

中国：鄧小平〔実質的な最高指導者〕China: Deng Xiaoping [de facto supreme leader]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ベトナム：レ・ズアンらVietnam: Le Duan and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ベトナムのカンボジア侵攻などを理由に「懲罰」を掲げて攻撃。China attacked, citing Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia and other actions as grounds for "punishment."

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

短期間の戦争でも国境地域に大きな被害。Even a short war caused great damage in the border region.

アフガニスタン戦争〔ソ連の侵攻・介入〕Afghanistan War [Soviet invasion and intervention]

ソ連のアフガニスタン侵攻・介入Soviet invasion of and intervention in Afghanistan

別の呼び名：ソ連・アフガニスタン戦争Also known as: Soviet–Afghan War

1979〜1989年のソ連の介入を扱います。2001年からの米国主導の戦争とは別のカードです。This card covers the Soviet intervention of 1979–1989. It is a separate card from the U.S.-led war that began in 2001.

侵攻・内戦への介入Invasion and intervention in a civil war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ソ連：ブレジネフ〔侵攻時の指導者〕Soviet Union: Brezhnev [leader at the time of the invasion]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

アフガニスタンの政権・諸抵抗勢力・住民Afghan government, resistance groups and residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍を投入し、政権交代に関与。航空機・ヘリコプターなどを使用する長期戦へ。Committed troops and was involved in a change of government. The conflict turned into a long war using aircraft, helicopters and other means.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

大量の避難民が発生。A large number of displaced people were created.

イラン・イラク戦争Iran–Iraq War

イラクによるイラン侵攻と長期戦争Iraq's invasion of Iran and the long war

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イラク：サダム・フセイン〔大統領〕Iraq: Saddam Hussein [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

イラン：ホメイニ〔最高指導者〕、住民Iran: Khomeini [supreme leader], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

1980年9月、イラクが侵攻。地上戦、都市への攻撃、湾岸の船舶への攻撃が続き、1988年に停戦。Iraq invaded in September 1980. Ground combat, attacks on cities and attacks on ships in the Gulf continued until a ceasefire in 1988.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

兵士だけでなく都市・国境の住民と船員も被害を受けた。国境・政権・地域の主導権をめぐる争いが長期化した。Not only soldiers but also residents of cities and border areas, and sailors, suffered harm. The struggle over borders, regimes and regional leadership became prolonged.

レバノン戦争〔1982年〕Lebanon War [1982]

イスラエルによるレバノン侵攻Israeli invasion of Lebanon

別の呼び名：第一次レバノン戦争Also known as: First Lebanon War

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イスラエル：ベギン〔首相〕、シャロン〔国防相〕Israel: Begin [prime minister], Sharon [defense minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

レバノンの住民・諸勢力、PLO：アラファト〔指導者〕Residents and factions of Lebanon, PLO: Arafat [leader]

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍がレバノンへ侵攻し、ベイルートまで攻撃を拡大。PLOの撤退などにつながる。The army invaded Lebanon and extended its attack as far as Beirut. This led to the withdrawal of the PLO, among other outcomes.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

既存の内戦に外国軍の攻撃・占領が重なり、住民の被害と避難が拡大。長期の駐留・抵抗へつながった。Foreign military attack and occupation were layered on an existing civil war, increasing harm and displacement among residents. It led to a long-term presence and resistance.

フォークランド戦争Falklands War

アルゼンチンによるフォークランド〔マルビナス〕諸島侵攻と英軍の奪回Argentina's invasion of the Falkland [Malvinas] Islands and the British recapture

別の呼び名：マルビナス戦争Also known as: Malvinas War

領有権紛争・侵攻Sovereignty dispute and invasion

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

アルゼンチン：ガルティエリ〔軍事政権の大統領〕Argentina: Galtieri [president of the military government]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

英国：サッチャー〔首相〕、島の住民United Kingdom: Thatcher [prime minister], residents of the islands

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

領有権が争われる英国統治下の島にアルゼンチン軍が侵攻。英国は遠方へ艦隊・航空戦力・地上軍を送り、島を奪回。Argentine forces invaded islands under British administration whose sovereignty was disputed. Britain sent a fleet, air power and ground forces to a distant location and recaptured the islands.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

国家間の領有権主張と、島に暮らす人々の意思・安全を分けて見る。海を越える輸送・補給が戦争を可能にした明確な例。Look separately at the sovereignty claims of states and the wishes and safety of the people living on the islands. A clear example of transport and supply across the sea making a war possible.

米国主導のグレナダ侵攻U.S.-led invasion of Grenada

侵攻・政権転覆Invasion and overthrow of a government

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：レーガン〔大統領〕。カリブ諸国の部隊も参加United States: Reagan [president]. Troops from Caribbean countries also took part

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

グレナダ：ハドソン・オースティン〔軍事政権の指導者〕、住民Grenada: Hudson Austin [leader of the military government], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

政変とモーリス・ビショップ殺害後、米国は自国民保護などを掲げ侵攻。政権を倒す。After the coup and the killing of Maurice Bishop, the United States invaded, citing the protection of its own citizens and other grounds. It overthrew the government.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

軍事介入の根拠と小国の主権が争点となった。住民の被害も含め、作戦の成功だけで評価しない。The grounds for military intervention and the sovereignty of a small country were at issue. Do not evaluate it only by the success of the operation, including the harm to residents.

米国によるパナマ侵攻U.S. invasion of Panama

侵攻・政権転覆Invasion and overthrow of a government

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：ジョージ・H・W・ブッシュ〔大統領〕United States: George H. W. Bush [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

パナマ：ノリエガ〔軍の実権者〕、住民Panama: Noriega [de facto military ruler], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

米国民保護、民主化、麻薬取締りなどを理由に侵攻。ノリエガを拘束し米国へ移送。The United States invaded, citing the protection of U.S. citizens, democratization, drug enforcement and other reasons. It detained Noriega and transferred him to the United States.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

軍事作戦と市街地の破壊が住民の生活を損なう。政権交代の正当化と、主権・被害を分けて検討する。The military operation and the destruction of urban areas harmed residents' lives. Consider separately the justification of regime change, sovereignty and harm.

クウェート侵攻〔翌年の湾岸戦争へ〕Invasion of Kuwait [leading to the Gulf War of the following year]

イラクのクウェート侵攻Iraq's invasion of Kuwait

別の呼び名：湾岸危機／湾岸戦争の前史Also known as: Gulf Crisis / prehistory of the Gulf War

侵攻は1990年。多国籍軍による湾岸戦争の主要な戦闘は1991年で、このカードの「翌年」に当たります。The invasion took place in 1990. The main fighting of the Gulf War by the multinational force was in 1991, which corresponds to the "following year" in this card.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

イラク：サダム・フセイン〔大統領〕Iraq: Saddam Hussein [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

クウェート：ジャービル〔首長〕、住民Kuwait: Jaber [emir], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

軍事占領と併合宣言。国連が侵攻を非難。Military occupation and a declaration of annexation. The United Nations condemned the invasion.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

翌年の多国籍軍による戦争でイラク軍が撤退。Iraqi forces withdrew in the war by the multinational force the following year.

コソヴォ紛争〔コソボ戦争〕Kosovo conflict [Kosovo War]

NATOによるユーゴスラヴィアへの航空攻撃〔コソヴォ紛争〕NATO air strikes on Yugoslavia [Kosovo conflict]

このカードは1999年のNATOによる航空攻撃を扱います。紛争の全期間を示すものではありません。This card covers the NATO air strikes of 1999. It does not show the entire period of the conflict.

航空攻撃・介入Air strikes and intervention

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

NATO諸国：クリントン〔米大統領〕、ブレア〔英首相〕、ソラナ〔NATO事務総長〕NATO countries: Clinton [U.S. president], Blair [British prime minister], Solana [NATO secretary general]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ユーゴスラヴィア：ミロシェヴィッチ〔大統領〕。コソヴォのアルバニア系住民、セルビア系住民などYugoslavia: Milosevic [president]. Ethnic Albanian residents of Kosovo, Serb residents and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

コソヴォの弾圧・紛争を背景に、国連安保理の明示的な武力行使承認なしに航空攻撃。のちに国際部隊を展開。Against the background of repression and conflict in Kosovo, NATO carried out air strikes without explicit authorization from the UN Security Council for the use of force. An international force was deployed afterward.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

住民への迫害と、爆撃による民間人被害をともに見る。人道目的の主張だけで合法性・被害の問題が解消するわけではない。Look at both the persecution of residents and the harm to civilians from the bombing. A claim of humanitarian purpose alone does not resolve questions of legality and harm.

アフガニスタン戦争〔米国主導、2001〜2021年〕Afghanistan War [U.S.-led, 2001–2021]

米国主導のアフガニスタン攻撃・長期介入U.S.-led attack on and long-term intervention in Afghanistan

1979年からのソ連の介入とは別の戦争として記載しています。This is listed as a war separate from the Soviet intervention that began in 1979.

攻撃・長期介入Attack and long-term intervention

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：ジョージ・W・ブッシュ〔開戦時〕、バイデン〔撤退時〕。英国なども参加United States: George W. Bush [at the start of the war], Biden [at the time of withdrawal]. The United Kingdom and others also took part

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

タリバン：オマル〔2001年の指導者〕。のちのアフガニスタン政府、住民Taliban: Omar [leader in 2001]. The later Afghan government, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

9・11攻撃後、アルカーイダとその拠点を保護するタリバンを対象に攻撃。政権が崩壊し、駐留・国家建設・戦闘が長期化。2021年に外国軍撤退。After the September 11 attacks, the attack targeted al-Qaeda and the Taliban, which sheltered al-Qaeda and its bases. The regime collapsed, and the troop presence, state-building and fighting became prolonged. Foreign forces withdrew in 2021.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

住民は戦闘・テロ・空爆・避難にさらされた。タリバンが復権し、軍事的優位だけでは持続する政治秩序を作れなかった。Residents were exposed to fighting, terrorism, air strikes and displacement. The Taliban returned to power, and military superiority alone could not create a lasting political order.

イラク戦争〔2003年の侵攻〕Iraq War [2003 invasion]

米英主導のイラク侵攻U.S.- and British-led invasion of Iraq

1991年の湾岸戦争と区別し、2003年の米英主導の侵攻を扱います。This card is distinguished from the 1991 Gulf War and covers the U.S.- and British-led invasion of 2003.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：ジョージ・W・ブッシュ〔大統領〕。英国：ブレア〔首相〕United States: George W. Bush [president]. United Kingdom: Blair [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

イラク：サダム・フセイン政権、住民Iraq: Saddam Hussein's government, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

航空攻撃と地上侵攻で政権を倒す。Overthrew the government through air strikes and a ground invasion.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

その後の占領・武装抵抗・治安悪化によって住民の被害が続く。Harm to residents continued because of the subsequent occupation, armed resistance and deteriorating security.

リビア内戦〔2011年の軍事介入〕Libyan civil war [2011 military intervention]

NATOなどによるリビアへの軍事介入Military intervention in Libya by NATO and others

内戦への介入Intervention in a civil war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

米国：オバマ、フランス：サルコジ、英国：キャメロン〔各国の政府指導者〕United States: Obama, France: Sarkozy, United Kingdom: Cameron [heads of government of each country]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

リビア：カダフィ政権、反体制勢力、住民Libya: Qaddafi's government, anti-government forces, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

内戦の中、国連安保理決議1973による住民保護などの授権を受け航空攻撃。カダフィ政権が崩壊。During the civil war, air strikes were carried out under an authorization, including the protection of residents, granted by UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Qaddafi's government collapsed.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

1999年コソヴォとは授権の条件が異なる。住民保護の目的、実際の攻撃範囲、政権崩壊後の対立と被害を別々に評価する。The conditions of authorization differ from those of Kosovo in 1999. Evaluate separately the aim of protecting residents, the actual scope of the attacks, and the conflicts and harm after the government's collapse.

ロシアによるクリミア占領・併合宣言Russian occupation of Crimea and declaration of annexation

占領・併合宣言Occupation and declaration of annexation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ロシア：プーチン〔大統領〕Russia: Putin [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ウクライナの暫定政権、クリミアの住民、クリミア・タタール人などUkraine's interim government, residents of Crimea, Crimean Tatars and others

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ロシア軍の統制下で「住民投票」を実施し併合を宣言。国連総会は投票を無効としてウクライナの領土保全を確認。A "referendum" was held under the control of Russian forces and annexation was declared. The UN General Assembly declared the vote invalid and affirmed Ukraine's territorial integrity.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

武力の下の投票と自由な自己決定を同一視しない。2022年の全面侵攻とは別に、2014年からの支配変更を記録する。Do not equate a vote held under armed force with free self-determination. The change of control from 2014 is recorded separately from the full-scale invasion of 2022.

イエメン内戦〔2015年からの外国軍介入〕Yemeni civil war [foreign military intervention from 2015]

サウジアラビア主導のイエメンへの軍事介入Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen

内戦全体の開始年ではなく、サウジアラビア主導の介入開始を記載しています。This lists the start of the Saudi-led intervention, not the year the civil war as a whole began.

内戦への介入Intervention in a civil war

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

サウジアラビア：サルマン〔国王〕、ムハンマド・ビン・サルマン〔当時の国防相〕Saudi Arabia: Salman [king], Mohammed bin Salman [defense minister at the time]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

イエメン：ハーディー〔国際的に承認された大統領〕、フーシ派：アブドルマリク・フーシ、住民Yemen: Hadi [internationally recognized president], Houthis: Abdulmalik al-Houthi, residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

ハーディー側の要請を掲げ、連合軍が空爆などを開始。既存の内戦に外国勢力の介入が重なる。Citing a request from Hadi's side, the coalition began air strikes and other actions. Foreign intervention was layered on an existing civil war.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

住民の死傷・避難に加え、医療・食料・生活基盤への被害が深刻化。ここでは2015年の介入開始を対象にする。In addition to deaths, injuries and displacement of residents, harm to medical care, food and the foundations of daily life became severe. Here the target is the start of the intervention in 2015.

ロシア・ウクライナ戦争〔2022年の全面侵攻〕Russia–Ukraine War [full-scale invasion of 2022]

ロシアのウクライナ全面侵攻Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine

別の呼び名：ウクライナ戦争Also known as: Ukraine War

このカードは2022年の全面侵攻開始を扱います。2014年のクリミア占領・併合宣言は別のカードです。This card covers the start of the full-scale invasion in 2022. The occupation of Crimea and declaration of annexation in 2014 are a separate card.

侵攻・戦争・支配Invasion, war and domination

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ロシア：プーチン〔大統領〕Russia: Putin [president]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

ウクライナ：ゼレンスキー〔大統領〕、住民Ukraine: Zelensky [president], residents

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

地上軍、航空機、ミサイルなどで広範囲を攻撃。Attacked a wide area with ground forces, aircraft, missiles and other means.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

主権国家への全面侵攻として国連で非難される。ここでは開戦時の事件を記載し、現在の戦況は扱わない。Condemned at the United Nations as a full-scale invasion of a sovereign state. Here the event at the outbreak of war is recorded, and the current state of the fighting is not covered.

ガザ戦争〔2023年10月からの戦争拡大〕Gaza War [expansion of the war from October 2023]

ハマスのイスラエル攻撃とイスラエルのガザへの大規模攻撃Hamas's attack on Israel and Israel's large-scale attack on Gaza

別の呼び名：イスラエル・ハマス戦争Also known as: Israel–Hamas War

武装組織の攻撃・大規模軍事作戦Attack by an armed group and large-scale military operation

行動した国・主要人物Acting state(s) and key figures

ハマス〔国家ではない武装・政治組織〕：シンワル〔ガザ地区の指導者〕。イスラエル：ネタニヤフ〔首相〕Hamas [an armed and political organization that is not a state]: Sinwar [leader in the Gaza Strip]. Israel: Netanyahu [prime minister]

相手側の人物・集団People and groups on the other side

イスラエルとガザの民間人、人質となった人々Civilians in Israel and Gaza, and people taken hostage

技術・交渉・条約・行動Technology, negotiation, treaties and actions

10月7日、ハマスなどがイスラエルを攻撃し民間人の殺害・人質拘束。イスラエルはガザへの爆撃・地上作戦を拡大。On October 7, Hamas and others attacked Israel, killing civilians and taking hostages. Israel expanded bombing and ground operations in Gaza.

住民・支配を受けた側の視点Perspective of residents and those who were ruled

民間人を攻撃する行為と、ガザ住民への甚大な被害をともに記録する。長年の占領・封鎖という背景と、個々の行為の責任は分ける。最新の戦況・被害人数は扱わない。Record both the acts of attacking civilians and the severe harm to Gaza's residents. Distinguish the background of long-standing occupation and blockade from responsibility for individual acts. The latest state of the fighting and casualty figures are not covered.